The present invention relates to the use of materials derived from Citrus plants in inducing weight loss, improving physical performance and increasing muscle mass.
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It has long been known that natural and synthetic substances may facilitate weight loss in those who are overweight or obese. Such substances as have found utility in this respect may act by a variety of mechanisms. For example, some such substances act by mimicking the effects of endogenous neurotransmitters, and are capable of directly replacing these neurotransmitters in their actions on receptors. This, in turn, leads to increased activity of the cells which possess the receptors. Where the receptors concerned are normally responsive to the endogenous hormones adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine), which mediate the activities of the sympathetic nervous system, such substances are termed direct-acting sympathicomimetic agents. Typical examples are the amphetamines. Other substances that produce similar effects on the sympathetic nervous system do so by stimulating the release of the endogenous hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline, and are thus termed indirect-acting sympathicomimetic agents. Ephedrine is a typical example of an indirect-acting sympathicomimetic agent. The term adrenergic may also be used, and is synonymous with the term sympathicomimetic. Such substances may also be referred to as agonists, where the name agonist is qualified by a descriptor of the receptor stimulated, for example, a beta-agonist.
While the formal distinction between direct-acting and indirect-acting sympathicomimetic action is clear, it is realized that many substances which act by causing sympathetic stimulation do so by both mechanisms, depending on intake levels and the receptors involved. Thus amphetamines act mainly directly, but also have some indirect actions, while ephedrine acts indirectly, but if given in higher dosage, may also stimulate receptors directly, particularly in the brain. It has been demonstrated that the main perceived actions of sympathicomimetic agents depend both on their differing specificities for the various receptors and on the pharmacokinetic behaviors of the agents in the body.
Thus the amphetamines, which are direct agents and readily cross the blood-brain barrier, mainly cause central nervous system stimulation, while ephedrine, and particularly pseudoephedrine, are indirect agents which do not cross the blood-brain barrier so readily, and thus are mainly seen to exert peripheral effects.
Another class of substances of value in assisting weight loss modulates other neurotransmitters, namely those involved in serotoninergic systems, and particularly 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT; otherwise known as serotonin) itself. These substances, of which fenfluramine and its optical isomer, dexfenfluramine, are typical, act by preventing the re-uptake of serotonin into storage granules in neurones. Levels of 5-HT in the synaptic gap thus remain elevated for longer periods, exciting receptors on responsive cells to greater activity.
Other aids to weight loss have been proposed, such as substances which prevent the absorption of nutrients from the digestive system, but the value of such approaches is minimal, and in general, the accepted substances of value in weight loss act by modulating neurotransmitter function in the central nervous system or peripherally.
Substances which modulate neurotransmitter function in the central nervous system are known to act by increasing the availability of catecholamines, in particular noradrenaline, in certain areas of the brain, thus resulting in perceived suppression of hunger. By suppressing hunger, less food is eaten, and caloric intake is lowered. Examples of such substances include phenylpropanolamine, phentermine and the amphetamines.
Substances which act by increasing the availability of 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin), on the other hand, are known to increase perceptions of satiety. An example of such a substance is dexfenfluramine.
Irrespective of mechanism, substances of either of these types result in reduced food intake. But their use can be attended by various unwanted effects characteristic of interference with other hormone-regulated systems in the body. It has furthermore been noted that the effects of these types of substances are transient, requiring progressively greater dosage to elicit desired effects, until the body finally becomes unresponsive. This progressive decrease in sensitivity is termed tachyphylaxis.
More recently, attention has been focused on ephedrine, which was originally thought to suppress the hunger center in the brain. However, during the last 30 years, research has shown that ephedrine acts mainly by stimulating thermogenesis. That is, it increases the metabolic rate and stimulates lipolysis (fat breakdown).
The effect of ephedrine on the peripheral metabolic rate is derived from actions on energy-generating tissues combined with stimulation of the release of fat from stored fat depots (adipose tissue). This not only increases the generation of energy but also increases the availability of substrates to be utilized for this energy generation. A valuable consequence of these two actions is the sparing of body protein, which in certain cases, depending on the composition of the diet, may even result in a gain of body protein (anabolic effect).
The effects of ephedrine can often be intensified by concomitant use of methylxanthines such as caffeine.
Empirical studies have shown that ephedrine, whether as the pure substance or in the form of Ephedra herb:
(a) Improves rates of weight loss in patients on low calorie diets, spares lean body mass (Pasquali et al., 1992; Kaats and Adelman, 1994), increases the proportion of fat in the weight lost (Astrup et al., 1992b) and prevents the decline in Resting Metabolic Rate usually seen with reduced caloric intake (Astrup et al., 1992b; Astrup and Toubro, 1993).
(b) Gives results, through increased thermogenesis and stimulation of lipolysis (fat breakdown) at dosage levels below those required to elicit stimulant or hunger suppressant effects (Astrup and Toubro, 1993).
(c) Shows synergism in the effects on weight loss when combined with caffeine (Daly et al., 1993; Astrup and Toubro, 1993).
(d) Is not associated with significant adverse effects. Thermogenic effects became more pronounced as treatment continues (Astrup et al., 1985, 1986) while initial adrenergic effects (which are not pronounced) exhibit tachyphylaxis and rapidly disappear (Astrup et al., 1992a).
It has even been suggested that ephedrine may be an example of a trace substance that belongs in the human diet, and that it provides an opportunity to attack obesity at a level that is close to causative (Landsberg and Young, 1993).
Based on the clinical observations, ephedrine may therefore be considered an ideal pharmacological aid in the treatment of obesity.
Though it has some central stimulant effect, and thus mediates suppression of hunger, ephedrine""s main mode of action appears to be peripheral and, in part, causative since it offsets the decline in metabolic rate that normally occurs on caloric restriction. The decline in metabolic rate that accompanies caloric restriction, therefore, is well known to those schooled in the art to defeat the initial weight loss benefits associated with caloric restriction. The body, in effect, recognizes the xe2x80x9cstarvationxe2x80x9d period, becomes more efficient in utilizing caloric resources, and simply waits until normal caloric intake is resumed. This explains the xe2x80x9cplateauxe2x80x9d effect seen in caloric restriction diets. When normal caloric intake is resumed, the body""s increased efficiency actually restores the fat lost in the caloric restriction period. This is commonly known as the xe2x80x9cyo-yo dietingxe2x80x9d effect.
The thermogenic action which results from ephedrine""s effects on metabolic rate and lipolysis persists throughout its use period, and may intensify as use continues.
Ephedrine""s classical adrenergic actions, which are undesirable in a weight loss context, cease rapidly due to tachyphylaxis.
The classical uses of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine for a variety of conditions are well illustrated by reference to standard works on Pharmacology and Therapeutics. For example, Govoni and Hayes (1985) describe use of ephedrine as a decongestant in allergic rhinitis, sinusitis and chronic asthma (often combined for such indications with theophylline, a methylxanthine closely related to caffeine in structure and effect), in the treatment of narcolepsy, to combat hypotensive states (especially those associated with spinal anesthesia), in the management of enuresis, as adjunctive therapy for myasthenia gravis, as a mydriatic, as temporary support of ventricular rate in Adams-Stokes syndrome, to relieve dysmenorhoea, and for management of peripheral edema secondary to diabetic neuropathy. Streeten (1975) adds idiopathic edema to the list of conditions where ephedrine (150-200 mg per day) has beneficial activity, and other uses verified have included ketotic hypoglycaemia (Court et al., 1974), urological syndromes caused by prostaglandin El (Lowe and Jarow, 1993) and insulin-induced edema (Hopkins et al., 1993). Matthews (1983) discusses the action of ephedrine on the internal sphincter of the bladder and urethra in relation to its use in treating urinary incontinence. Govoni and Hayes (1985) note that maximum parenteral dosage should not exceed 150 mg/day by sub-cutaneous (s.c.), intramuscular (i.m.) or intravenous (i.v.) routes and comment that unwanted effects (all of which are consequent on the pharmacology involved) usually only occur with large doses. The same textbook teaches that pseudoephedrine essentially shares these properties, but is mainly used for relief of rhinitis in doses up to 240 mg/day for adults; Southon and Buckingham (1989) concur that pseudoephedrine and ephedrine have similar pharmacological profiles, but that pseudoephedrine is less potent.
Naturally occurring ephedrine is the 1R,2S(xe2x88x92)-erythro form, which is the most active pharmacologically. Pseudoephedrine is the threo form.
Acting indirectly, the main action of ephedrine is to elicit release of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) from presynaptic sites. This in turn activates both alpha- and beta-adrenoceptors. The perceived effects on different organs and tissues depend on the relative proportions of the two types of receptors, which mediate different responses. At a basal level, classical pharmacology teaches that alpha-activation results in contraction of smooth muscle (except for intestinal smooth muscle) while beta-activation causes relaxation of smooth muscle and stimulation of the myocardium. But this picture is complicated by the fact that both alpha- and beta-receptors can be subdivided into further types with differing distributions and sensitivities.
At a cellular level, activation of beta-receptors results in stimulation of adenylate cyclase. This leads to increases in intracellular levels of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). The precise sequence of events (Munson, 1995) is believed to be:
(1) The beta-agonist binds to the beta-receptor.
(2) The receptor-agonist complex has high affinity for a stimulatory guanine nucleotide regulatory protein termed the Gs protein, and binds to this protein.
(3) Formation of the receptor-agonist-Gs complex facilitates the exchange of guanine diphosphate (GDP) for guanine triphosphate (GTP) on the Gs protein.
(4) The Gs-GTP complex dissociates from the receptor-agonist complex and then interacts with the catalytic subunit of adenylate cyclase, promoting the conversion of adenosine triphosphate to cAMP.
(5) The cAMP activates a cAMP-dependent protein kinase, which can then phosphorylate a variety of intracellular proteins, ultimately leading to a pharmacological response.
Feedback inhibition control is achieved by phosphorylation of receptor proteins, which results in their desensitization.
Activation of most alpha-2 receptors has an opposite effect, the first step being inhibition of adenylate cyclase through a guanine nucleotide regulatory protein termed Gi. The Gi protein, by inhibiting the catalytic activity of the adenylate cyclase, leads to a reduction in cellular levels of cAMP, which decreases the activation of the cAMP-dependent protein kinases. However, in some alpha-2 receptors, the Gi protein may act through other mechanisms which have not yet been elucidated, but possibly lead to activation of membrane calcium channels.
The alpha-1 receptors have a different mechanism. It does not appear to involve cAMP, but apparently relies instead on diacyl glycerols and inositol-1,4,5-triphosphate.
It is readily understood that the beta-receptors can also be further subdivided based upon their mechanism of action. The known subdivision of beta-receptors into beta-1, beta-2, and beta-3 types is of particular interest for this invention since the beta-3-receptor is strongly believed to be responsible for the lipolytic and thermogenic effects of ephedrine while interactions with the other two types of beta-receptors are known to control cardiac effects of ephedrine.
Effects on blood pressure, however, are in part due to the stimulation of alpha-2-receptors, where such stimulation produces peripheral vasoconstriction.
Central nervous system effects of ephedrine appear to depend on activation both alpha- and beta-receptors (with the exception of beta-3-receptors). The multi-receptor response to ephedrine is also important in explaining observed synergistic effects of caffeine on certain actions of ephedrine.
The overall response to ephedrine, reflected in perceived effects, is governed by the distribution of receptors in terms of types and populations. As an example, the activation of beta-receptors causes vasodilation of vessels in the heart and skeletal muscle while simultaneous alpha-2-activation results in vasoconstriction in other vascular beds. This is effectively the classical xe2x80x9cfight or flightxe2x80x9d response, which together with other metabolic results of adrenoceptor activation is intended to put the body into an optimal state for physical exertion.
The metabolic results of adrenoceptor activation also include effects on lipolysis and thermogenesis. In the case of lipolysis, activation of alpha-2-receptors inhibits the process, while activation of beta-receptors (believed to be the beta-3-subtype) stimulates lipolysis and at same time, possibly in part due to increased availability of substrate, induces a thermogenic response. The overall response of the adipose tissue thus depends on the relative proportions of alpha-2 and beta-3 receptors. A high ratio of alpha-2 to beta-3 receptors would produce a comparatively lower thermogenic response than a low ratio. Indeed, the predicted diminishment of thermogenic response associated with increasing proportion of alpha-2 compared to beta-3 receptors may explain why some studies of thermogenic responses to ephedrine have found two populations: responders and relative non-responders.
Attention has been paid to the unexpected finding that thermogenic properties of ephedrine do not exhibit tachyphylaxis. Landsberg and Young (1993) adopt the position that since the activity of the sympathetic nervous system may be reduced in obesity, improvement of sympathetic nervous system activity to normal levels is physiological rather than pharmacological, and that the use of ephedrine in obese persons does nothing more than restore normal catecholamine function. In this respect, therefore, ephedrine differs in no way from the effects of high protein diets or consumption of foods containing natural thermogenic substances. Lansdberg and Young also suggest that ephedrine may be particularly useful in combating the weight gain that usually follows cessation of smoking since smoking cessation is also associated with impaired catecholamine function.
Dulloo (1993) concurs with Lansdberg and Young""s point of view. He notes that at levels compatible with therapeutic doses, ephedrine has little or no direct agonist activity but mediates its effects via endogenous release of noradrenaline and adrenaline. Essentially, therefore, ephedrine does nothing more than increase the efficiency of the system already in place in the body. He notes that this has potential positive implications for ephedrine""s use in the treatment of obesity, and also explains some of the obscure clinical observations reported:
1) The fact that tolerance rapidly develops to the very mild cardiovascular effects of ephedrine, but not to its thermogenic effects, suggests that adrenaline and noradrenaline released by ephedrine activate the beta-3-adrenoceptors.
2) The adrenaline released is a preferential agonist for the beta-2-adrenoceptors which stimulate protein synthesis and thus can counteract loss of lean body mass during use of low calorie diets.
In this respect, Pasquali et al. (1992) have shown that ephedrine enhances fat loss in diet-restricted obese patients and reduces loss of nitrogen.
3) Chronic stimulation of postsynaptic alpha-adrenoceptors by the adrenaline and noradrenaline released in response to ephedrine therapy may activate thyroxine deiodinases, leading to peripheral conversion of T4 (thyroxine) to T3 (triiodothyronine), which may, in turn, increase adrenoceptor sensitivity to the thermogenic effects of the catecholamines since T3 is much more active than T4.
This mechanism may also partially explain why the thermogenic effect of ephedrine is increased after chronic administration.
4) Single dose studies have shown that skeletal muscle and visceral organs contribute most of the thermogenic activity after ephedrine administration, with a minor contribution from adipose tissue. These tissues can all be reactivated and even proliferate in response to chronic catecholamine activation, which may explain the enhanced thermogenesis seen with prolonged ephedrine treatment.
Dulloo suggests that ephedrine, with chronic administration, exerts its effects indirectly via adrenaline and noradrenaline and thereby generates its own selectivity for desirable anti-obesity effects. This is accomplished by the down-regulation of adrenoceptor types or subtypes associated with unwanted cardiac or pressor effects and with sustained activation of adrenoceptor types that mediate thermogenesis, lipolysis and protein retention.
Arner (1993) approaches the mechanism of ephedrine action from the lipolysis aspect. He notes that catecholamines have both lipolytic and antilipolytic effects, so that at any time there is a balance between these effects. However, it has been suggested that lipid metabolism in man is mainly controlled by inhibitory modulators, and adenosine has been shown to reduce the sensitivity of lipolytic beta-adrenoceptors, particularly in subcutaneous fat depots. Several prostaglandins of the E-type are also potent antilipolytic agents. Thus the potentiation of the ephedrine effect by caffeine (which may affect adenosine dynamics) and aspirin (which can inhibit prostaglandin synthysis) may not be restricted to the synaptic gap, but may also extend into the actual fat-mobilizing mechanism.
Dulloo (1993) noted that in early investigations of ephedrine use as an anti-obesity agent, attention focused on the main action of ephedrine in reducing appetite (the anorexic effect). It now appears that the thermogenic and lipolytic effects are the main properties that make ephedrine so suitable for use as a weight loss aid. Indeed, significant improvements of rates of weight loss occur at ephedrine dosage levels far below those required to achieve detectable main effects, and increasing dosage to the level at which main effects occur does not necessarily give better rates of weight loss (Daly et al., 1993).
While the actions of ephedrine makes it an ideal adjunct for regulating and controlling weight problems, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that it may also be useful as an ergogenic aid to improve physical performance. The acute action is to increase energy availability and, thus, increase the capacity for physical exertion, while the longer-term actions result in an increase in muscle mass, particularly when combined with appropriate diet programs and training exercises. Indeed, Yang and McElligott (1989) have commented that beta-adrenergic agents may act as very effective anabolic agents when given over long periods of time. Both the beneficial ergogenic effects and the valuable effects on weight loss stem from the combination of the effects of ephedrine on lipolysis and its thermogenic effects. Thus by increasing the rate at which fat is released from body stores (lipolysis) while simultaneously increasing the metabolic rate (thermogenesis), those wishing to lose weight may accelerate the removal of unwanted fat stores.
At the same time, since the administration of ephedrine means there is increased availability of substrates (the free fatty acids which are released from the fat stores) for oxidation, the body has access to greater amounts of energy. The body""s use of these substrates spares protein that might otherwise be oxidized for energy. Therefore, the use of ephedrine in conjunction with additional favorable circumstances, namely a high protein intake and an exercise program, will also result in increased availability of amino acids for incorporation into protein in the muscle mass.
From the foregoing, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that the agents most suitable for inducing weight loss in those with excess weight, or, for persons of normal weight, increasing energy availability and/or muscle mass, would be sympathicomimetic (adrenergic) agents whose mechanism of action is mainly indirect, resembling that of ephedrine, and whose pharmacokinetics favor retention of the agents in the periphery rather than passage into the brain. Agents whose profiles match these requirements would be less likely to cause central nervous system stimulation under normal conditions of use, but would still possess enough central action to suppress the hunger center. The partition in favor of peripheral tissues would result in increased levels of these agents at the sites of the beta-3-receptors, which mediate lipolysis and thermogenesis. It is also widely believed that sympathicomimetic agents possessing mainly an indirect mechanism of action would be less likely to cause unwanted side effects and less likely to result in addictive situations.
Hitherto, the only such agent which has been shown to act in the optimized ideal fashion has been ephedrine itself. Ephedrine has some drawbacks, however. It is primarily provided in pharmaceutical forms which allow quick release in the body for the alleviation of acute respiratory ailments whereas, for the purposes of inducing lipolysis and thermogenesis, a slower release is desirable. Furthermore, many of those who are overweight prefer not to use agents which are presented as drugs. In addition, for a variety of health conditions, such use will often be contraindicated because of the risk of potentially hazardous side effects, which risk could be increased because of the weight problem.
Prior to this invention, those wishing to avail themselves of natural products for eliciting weight loss or increasing muscle mass have had no choice other than to use products containing Ephedra herb (Ephedraceae), which contains ephedrine together with related alkaloids. However, because of concerns about the use of Ephedra herb products, many do not avail themselves of this opportunity.
The provision of a natural product that acts in the ideal fashion noted above would therefore provide major benefits to those seeking to lose weight or improve their physical fitness, or both, and would be especially useful to those who prefer not to take either drug-like products or natural products containing ephedrine alkaloids.
The present invention relates to the discovery that certain plants contain adrenergic amines of the group consisting of synephrine, hordenine, octopamine, tyramine and N-methyltyramine that are useful to assist in weight loss, adding muscle mass, and/or increasing physical performance. More particularly, the present invention relates to the discovery that useful and exploitable levels of these adrenergic amines only occur in plant species of Citrus.
In still greater detail, the invention relates to the discovery that these useful levels only occur in parts of the plant that are not normally eaten, including the leaves and bark, or in the fruit in certain stages of maturity. In yet further detail, the invention relates to a composition in which the plant parts are used in various forms to provide therapeutically effective doses of these adrenergic amines and to a composition in which the adrenergic amines are extracted from the plant parts using methods well known to those schooled in the art.
In further detail, the invention relates to the use of the composition to stimulate beta-receptors in a predominantly indirect fashion thereby stimulating thermogenesis, increased metabolic rate and lipolysis. In yet additional detail, the invention relates to the use of the composition to control appetite by suppressing hunger.
In further detail, the composition of the invention has utility in regulating or treating weight problems as well as increasing vitality, energizing, and in the long term increasing muscle mass.
In still further detail, the amounts of the adrenergic amines of this invention needed to be effective can be as low as one mg ingested three times daily, and the low dosage effective range is from one to five mg ingested up to 3 or 4 times daily. Still further, the preferred use of this invention is to administer single doses of from 8 to 30 mg up to 4 times daily, making a total daily dose of about 100 to 120 mg per day.
In a further aspect, the present invention relates to a method for weight loss and a method for ergogenesis to aid in improved physical performance and to aid in adding lean muscle mass to the body.
An object of the present invention is to provide a composition containing an effective weight control/weight loss amount of at least one of the group of adrenergic amines synephrine, hordenine, octopamine, tyramine and N-methyltyramine.
Another object of the present invention is to provide a composition containing an effective amount of at least one of these adrenergic amines to stimulate the addition of lean muscle mass.
Yet another object of the present invention is to provide a composition containing an effective amount of at least one of these adrenergic amines to enhance physical performance.
Still another object of the invention is a method for promoting weight control, weight loss, enhanced physical performance, and/or the addition of lean muscle mass which includes the step of administering to a subject an effective amount of at least one of the group of five adrenergic amines.
Another object of the invention is to obtain the adrenergic amines from the plant material of the genus Citrus, and more specifically from the leaves, bark, unripe fruit, ripe fruit and peel of the species Citrus aurantium and/or Citrus reticulata. 
In achieving the above and other objects, one feature of the invention is that the composition can be administered in the form of the plant material in a tablet, capsule or other pharmacologically appropriate carrier, in the form of a tea, or in the form without plant material in a tablet, capsule or other pharmacological carrier which contains at least one of the group of five adrenergic amines extracted from the plant material.